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The Teaching Assistant Handbook

Acknowledgements
  1. Introduction

  2. Your Teaching Assistantship

  3. Your Students And Their World

  4. Beginning To Teach

  5. The Craft of Teaching

  6. Teachers' Aids

  7. TA Survival: Helping Yourself

  8. Other Considerations

  9. Suggestions for Further Reading

On Teaching
What makes a good teacher? Being a good teacher requires much more than knowing your way around campus or memorizing the rules and regulations of the university. Successful teaching demands a thorough understanding of the course material, a respect for students, a commitment to excellence, as well as a recognition of the need to examine, assess, and adjust your own pedagogical goals and philosophy as you go along.

The transition from student to student and teacher is a major one, requiring a conscious evaluation of your feelings about both roles. What expectations do you have for yourself as a student and as a teacher? How do they differ? How can these contradictions be resolved? How will your new position affect your relationships with undergraduates? How will you know how to act in front of a class? Will you model yourself on a favorite teacher, or is it best to be completely original? What kinds of demands will you make upon your students in terms of classwork, discipline, attendance, or grades? How can you ensure fair treatment of all students? What kind of relationship should you establish with your students—distant or friendly, formal or informal? These and a hundred other questions will probably present themselves to you. This book is not meant to be definitive or prescriptive but to offer suggestions about how to proceed based on the choices that others have found beneficial.

If you cannot find the answers to your questions in this handbook or from faculty members or other graduate students in your program, try visiting the TA Project (TAP) website, or contacting TAP at 732/932-11TA or tapweb@rci.rutgers.edu (see p. 86). Neither this handbook nor helpful faculty members nor the TA Helpline, however, can solve all problems: time and experience will prove, in the end, to be the most effective teachers.

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Why TAs?
The teaching assistant at Rutgers, as at other major research universities in the United States, plays an important role in the education of undergraduates. Rutgers depends on teaching assistants to staff both introductory and advanced undergraduate courses. Today, it is a rare student who graduates from Rutgers without having been taught by a TA. With approximately 800 teaching assistants in the full range of disciplines, TAs are obviously essential to the running of the university. Furthermore, without teaching assistantships the university would be at a disadvantage in competing to attract the best faculty to work at Rutgers and would have difficulty meeting its obligation to train and develop the next generation of scholars and teachers.

The benefits of an assistantship to a TA are considerable. First, there are financial benefits, including tuition remission, which make it possible for some students to enroll in graduate school in the first place. In addition, TAs gain valuable experience in teaching at the college level, which will help when the time comes to look for a job. Finally, TAs have an opportunity to strengthen their own knowledge of their chosen field, since teaching demands not only a thorough understanding but also a constant rethinking of the subject matter. Teaching assistants and professors frequently comment on how much better they have grasped a subject after teaching it. Recognizing these mutually beneficial aspects of the assistantship may help TAs to feel more comfortable with their position at Rutgers. At least at first, many TAs may feel uncertain about their status in the university. As graduate students, they may feel that they have come a long way from their undergraduate days, but as teachers, they may feel that they have far to go. Although resolving this conflict may not be simple, working hard at professional development will make TAs feel more secure in their status as members of the teaching staff and help accelerate their professional growth. Keep in mind that TAs are needed, qualified, and respected members of the Rutgers community who have the opportunity to make a unique and important contribution to its educational goals.

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Teaching and Research
What is the connection between research and teaching? Is there a connection between serious research and good teaching? Do undergraduates benefit from instructors who devote a considerable amount of time to research rather than to teaching full-time? What are the benefits for the students in having a TA who is engaged in teaching, studying, and research? What are the disadvantages of this arrangement?

Although the benefits teachers gain from research are generally clear to those engaged in it, people on the other side of the fence may question the efficacy of such a dual system. Undergraduates and critics outside of the academy often see the researcher as someone who is seeking to avoid the responsibility of teaching, someone in retreat from the “real world.” The notion that jobs are, in fact, rigidly compartmentalized—teachers teach, nurses nurse, waiters wait—does not hold true. Almost any job combines many skills and duties; the most interesting fields are often those that intersect with others, where a person gets the opportunity to integrate diverse interests and talents into a single satisfying job. Teaching in a research university such as Rutgers can be a very satisfying occupation. It is important also to note that it benefits not only the teacher but that teacher’s students and society at large. The teacher/researcher, of course, is the obvious beneficiary; being paid to explore areas of interest in one’s chosen field is a joy. In addition, having the chance to discuss new ideas with a group of interesting and interested students is a way of testing ideas. More importantly, the act of teaching provides a constant opportunity to rethink old questions, a process that often leads to new ways of looking at problems, even of solving them. Finally, in the end, the research may result in some real contribution to the field—the sciences, the humanities, the social sciences—that will benefit others in the discipline and the constituents served by it.

Undergraduates, of course, benefit also. The teacher who is currently involved in research, who stays abreast of the field, is able to keep his or her teaching fresh: knowing about new ideas, new theories, new approaches to a subject are necessary to anyone actively involved in research. Students, therefore, are given a broader, more up-to-date view of the subject than might be available to a student with a teacher whose research ended when the degree was awarded. Students can be challenged and excited by a teacher whose subject seems open-ended and evolving rather than closed and final.

Undergraduates do have a legitimate complaint, however, when a faculty member spends precious class time on an arcane, highly specialized problem. Unless students have mastered the basics of a subject, they simply will not be interested in these matters. It is useful to bring in relevant ideas from research when they assist students in understanding the course material or when they offer opportunities for students to build upon their basic knowledge. TAs must balance their students’ need to understand the basics thoroughly with their own desire to keep their students aware of the latest ideas in a field. Without the basics, these ideas are meaningless.

Another problem may arise when students perceive the faculty member or TA as too busy to work with them. Faculty members who spend all their time in the laboratory and make themselves inaccessible to their students are not, of course, meeting their obligations. The key to the success of the research university lies in the ability of its members to balance the roles of researcher and teacher; one role cannot take priority over the other. If either role is neglected, the faculty member or teaching assistant is not fulfilling his or her obligation to the university, to the department, and to the undergraduates.

Faculty members engaged in important research attract other talented faculty members to the campus, who, in turn, attract better graduate students and undergraduates. Research also brings needed funds to the university in the form of grants. Because a university takes its shape from the kinds of teaching and research it undertakes and is judged by its level of commitment to teaching and research, it is important that all members of the university community are aware of the nature of this commitment.

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TA Appointments
The university awards teaching assistantships to promising graduate students. The individual department or program establishes its own procedures for appointment and reappointment consonant with university policy. The department or program also determines the specific TA assignments, which may include teaching, grading, laboratory supervision, or other academic duties as dictated by need.

As you already know, notification of a TA appointment is made by the department in a letter that sets out the basic terms of employment. Students are expected to respond to this letter as soon as possible, whether accepting or refusing the appointment. The term of appointment for teaching assistants is from August 25 to Commencement, but for payroll purposes runs from September 1 to June 30; all standard appointments are made for one year only. Appointment to a teaching assistantship one year does not guarantee reappointment the next year. Since all university appointments are subject to availability of resources, it is essential that you reapply each year, according to departmental instructions. All questions about reappointment should be directed to the individual department or program.

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Hours and Duties
A full-time teaching assistant works normally at the maximum rate of fifteen clock hours per week. The number of hours varies according to the time of semester. For example, TAs who are hired as graders should expect to put in more hours during those times of the semester when exams or papers are scheduled.

If you are unhappy with your assigned duties or feel overburdened by the amount of work and time you are expected to invest, try talking to other TAs within your own department to see if your experience is unusual and your expectations are realistic. (It is unrealistic to compare the workload of one department to another; because of the variety of duties and the disparity of disciplinary demands, what is usual in one program is by no means a measure for any other.) Discuss the cause of your displeasure with the department chair to see if changes can be made for the next semester. Most faculty members are sympathetic to the problems of the TA and try to be fair in their assignments.

If you feel, however, that you are being asked to perform duties which are inappropriate, or that you are being exploited or overburdened, do not suffer in silence. Speak to someone. You should not be putting in so many hours as a TA that your graduate work suffers. Your advisor is a good person to begin with, but if you get no satisfaction there, you should make an appointment with the course or department chair. If that does not help, then try one of the deans of the Graduate School, who can determine whether your complaint is valid and, if so, help you resolve the problem. TAs should not be required to run personal errands for faculty or staff, or to work for so many hours that they are unable to complete their own work. Recognize the fact that you can say no to a faculty member who is overwhelming you with work. You are a professional and deserve to be treated like one.

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Salary and Benefits
In addition to a salary, paid every two weeks during the contract year, the full-time TA at Rutgers is entitled to a variety of benefits, such as health and life insurance, dental insurance (an optional benefit for which the TA must pay a portion of the cost; see p. 10), and tuition remission.

Full tuition remission is given to all TAs on standard appointments; this will cover up to twelve credits a semester and six credits during the summer following a full-year appointment. In order to take advantage of this benefit, TAs must submit a completed RT100 form when registering for summer session. The RT100 must be signed by the department where the assistantship is held. RT100 forms are available from the cashier’s office, your program administrator, or online (see University Websites, p. 114).

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Getting Paid
Certain information must be entered into the university computer system before a paycheck can be issued; without this information, it is IMPOSSIBLE to get paid. Be diligent in completing and prompt in returning the forms the department mails to you, since it may take up to six weeks to activate a new name in the payroll system. If you have any questions, check with your department administrator.

International TAs must report to the Center for International Faculty and Student Services (IFSS) in order to complete the proper payroll forms. Contact the Center to learn the scheduled times for processing employment verifications (I-9s); this cannot be done on a walk-in basis. Until international teaching assistants complete employment verifications, their payroll papers cannot be processed (see Center for International Faculty and Student Services, p. 73).

Many students already have a United States Social Security number. If you do not, apply for one immediately. This is one piece of information required by the payroll department, without which you cannot be paid. If a problem arises at the beginning of the semester and your paycheck is delayed, speak to the department administrator to find out whom to contact in order to trace your check. If necessary, the department administrator may be able to process a request for an emergency check. Since this entails even more paperwork, however, it is best to try to get everything straightened out before the semester begins. Checks are distributed through the department on alternate Fridays, or you can arrange to have your checks deposited directly into your bank account by filling out the necessary form. Payments begin in September. For TAs appointed for the fall term only, payments run from September through January. TAs appointed for spring term only are paid on alternate Fridays beginning in February and running through June.

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E Credits
Your teaching assistantship (standard appointment) carries with it six E credits. (Partial TA appointments have proportionally fewer E credits.) The E indicates that no credit has been earned toward the degree and no grade computed in the cumulative average. This means that if you are registered for at least 3 other credits of coursework or research you maintain full-time status in the university, thus insuring that you receive all the benefits of a full-time student.

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Health Benefits: On-Campus
Comprehensive group health care facilities are available to students on the New Brunswick/Piscataway campuses. All full-time students are entitled to use the Rutgers Health Service, and TAs on standard appointments are considered full-time. (A standard teaching assistantship counts as six E credits, which combine with your other credits to give full-time status (see E Credits, p. 7). Appointments are required.

To establish a medical file and make treatment more efficient, try to use the same center for all of your visits. Because Hurtado is the one center open all year, many resident students choose it as their primary facility.

The locations of the three student health centers for New Brunswick/Piscataway students are listed below:

The Hurtado Health Center
11 Bishop Place, CAC
732/932-7401

Rutgers Pharmacy 732/932-8033

The Busch/Livingston Health Center
Hospital Road and Avenue E
Livingston Campus
732/445-3250

Pharmacy 732/445-3606

The Willets Health Center
11 Suydam Street, Douglass Campus
732/932-9805

Willets Pharmacy 732/932-9555


Health Benefits: Off-Campus

In addition to the Rutgers Health Service, the university offers a variety of benefit plans from which all full-time TAs may select. To be covered you must fill out the necessary forms including a State Health Benefits Application at the beginning of the semester. If you have any questions about these plans, call the Benefits Office 732/932-3020, ext. 4077.

Medical Plan Choices

Rutgers offers medical plan choices designed to meet employee coverage needs.

Medical Insurance Information and Rates are available online.

Eligible to Enroll in the State Health Benefits Program:

  • Regularly appointed full-time TA
  • Legal spouse
  • Same-sex domestic/Civil Union partner
  • Unmarried dependent children under age 23 (including step-children, foster children, adopted children or children an employee is legally required to support)
  • Individuals may belong to a SHBP HMO or a SHBP dental program as an employee or a dependent, but not both
  • Two state employees married to each other cannot both cover the same children under two SHBP HMO plans

When Coverage Begins:

  • Academic year 10-month employees with September 1 hire date: September 1 effective date
  • All other employees, effective after 2 months of continuous employment, i.e., August 15 hire date: October 15 effective date

Health Maintenance Organizations (HMO)

TAs are eligible to participate in Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs). Your choice of participating HMOs will be determined by your home zip code. Each HMO has a unique directory of participating providers. You must select a Primary Care Physician (PCP) to coordinate your health care. HMOs cover a wide range of services and procedures including wellness care. There are no deductibles or claim forms required. The standard co-payments required for services are $10 co-payments for visits to a primary care physician or specialists and up to a $35 co-payment for emergency care. For additional information, see p. 115 for a listing of pertinent websites.

New Jersey Plus (Point-of-Service Plan)

Benefits fall into two categories: “in-network” benefits and “out-of-network” benefits. “In-network” benefits function like an HMO. You use a primary care physician and pay co-payments for services. “Out-of-network” benefits function in a way similar to the Traditional Plan, you may choose any provider and are required to pay deductibles and co-insurance. For additional information, see p. 115 for a listing of pertinent websites.

Prescription Drug Plan

The Prescription Drug Plan will cover the cost of most prescriptions. The Prescription Drug Plan is a separate plan from the medical plan. An identification card will be sent to you shortly after the semester begins. For up to a 30-day supply of generic drugs there is a $3 co-payment and a $10 co-payment for up to a 30-day supply of brand name drugs. The plan also has a mail order program which provides up to a 90 day supply of medications for the co-payment amount of $5 for a generic drug and $15 for a brand name drug. For additional information, see p. 115 for a listing of pertinent websites.

Prescription Eyeglass

Reimbursement Plan
All full-time TAs (and their eligible dependents) may enroll in this plan. A TA can be reimbursed for a portion of the cost of the lenses ($35 for single vision lenses; $40 for tri/bifocal lenses) once in a specified two year period for each covered individual. See p. 115 for a link to the Vision Care Reimbursement Plan Claim Form and a listing of pertinent websites.

Dental Coverage

Two state employee group dental programs are available. Full-time TAs have the option to participate in either the New Jersey State Dental Expense Program or a New Jersey State Dental Plan Organization (DPO). Employees should review the plan rules before selecting a dental plan. Participants must remain in the dental plan they select for at least 12 months before making changes or canceling coverage. For additional information, see p. 115 for a listing of pertinent websites.

The Dental Expense Plan

The plan is an Indemnity (fee-for-service) plan. You have the freedom to choose any dentist. The plan covers exams and cleanings at 100% (no deductible) and basic restorative services are covered at 80% after deductible. Major restorative services (inlays, onlays, crowns) are covered at 65% after deductible. Periodontal and prosthodontic procedures are covered at 50% after deductible. Orthodontic services for children (under 19) are covered at 50% up to $1,000 lifetime maximum. There is a $3,000 maximum reimbursement limit per person per calendar year. For additional information, see p. 115 for a listing of pertinent websites.

Dental Plan Organizations (DPOs)

There are several DPOs from which to select. Members must use DPO network dentists. DPOs cover routine exams, cleanings, and preventive care at 100%. There are co-payments required for other dental services. Orthodontic services for patients under age 18 have a co-payment of $1000 or 50% of reasonable and customary charges, whichever is less. Patients age 18 and older have an orthodontic co-payment requirement of $1,750 or 50% of reasonable and customary charges, whichever is less. For additional information, see p. 115 for a listing of pertinent websites.

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What is it like to be an Undergraduate?
Many TAs feel far removed from undergraduate culture, distant from that way of living and thinking, even though they themselves were undergraduates not so long ago. Having moved beyond the undergraduate to the graduate level, they may forget what it was like to be an undergraduate. The TA who can remember this experience, however, and empathize with the trials and stresses of undergraduate life may be able, in the end, to reach more students than those who view them from afar.

Although the life of an undergraduate may seem idyllic when looked at through the eyes of the overburdened graduate student, it is not quite as simple as memory makes it. Most undergraduates have a full schedule of classes, carrying at least twelve credits (often, sixteen or more). In addition to this, a majority of undergraduates must work at part-time jobs to subsidize their education. For many students, a job is a necessity: without it, they would be forced to leave school. Furthermore, many of these students are living away from home for the first time in their lives—an emotionally and socially demanding period. Clearly, students who are overwhelmed by work and social life will have difficulties investing the needed time to complete their coursework.

Once TAs recognize the fact that the life of the undergraduate is not always an easy one, they are in a position to help their students: to consider ways to translate this knowledge into action, to adopt teaching strategies that acknowledge and alleviate the problems that come along with being an undergraduate. Perhaps the most effective first step TAs can take is to stop thinking about their students as an amorphous mass—the undergraduates—and to attempt to see them as individuals. Do not make generalizations about your students (i.e., undergraduates are lazy, silly, shallow, unmotivated). Most students are sincerely involved with their education and willing to work hard to succeed.

Be understanding when students come to you with problems or with excuses for late or unsatisfactory work: they honestly do have tight schedules and may be under a lot of pressure. Help them if you can; don’t put another obstacle in their way. This does not mean that you should fall for every line they give you, but do not be so skeptical that you do not accept any excuses. Dealing with students in a fair and honest manner is the best policy. Try to help them find ways to meet their commitments to your class without losing control of other equally important parts of their lives.

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The Student Body
What expectations can a TA have about a Rutgers student? In a university of approximately 50,000 students—37,000 in New Brunswick alone—you can, first of all, expect variety. There are more full-time students than part-time students, more women than men enrolled at Rutgers. Most of the students (91%) are from New Jersey.

Numbers and percentiles tell nothing about the ability of a given individual or the scope of knowledge or range of experience a student may bring to your classroom. Avoid stereotyping students, since research has shown that student performance is often directly related to teacher expectation. One of the jobs of a good teacher is to identify and help develop an individual student’s potential. So, the answer to the question posed in the opening paragraph of this section—what expectations should a TA have about Rutgers students—is that a teacher should expect intelligent and able students, each with a unique contribution to make.

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Campuses, Schools
With a large and sprawling university and campuses spread throughout the state, Rutgers is larger than many cities, and, like a city, offers a variety of opportunities and experiences. Getting around may seem confusing at first, but a clear roadmap and a little curiosity will help you become oriented more quickly. Understanding the Rutgers system will be beneficial in helping you to feel at home on campus and enabling you to work more closely with your students. Recognizing which unit of the university your students come from will give you clues about their goals and lives and help you in referring them to the proper places if they come to you for assistance. In addition, evidence of your familiarity with the students’ environment signals to them that you are also a member of their community, someone who may understand and sympathize with their problems.

Try to become familiar with the five New Brunswick campuses, not only because TAs can be assigned to any campus but also because you will feel more comfortable if you do so. Special events of interest are held on various campuses—lectures, movies, sporting events, etc.—so you will probably have occasion to visit all of them at one time or another. Although these campus complexes may at first seem widely scattered, all can be reached with campus bus service.

The New Brunswick area campuses are described briefly below.

Busch Campus, located across the Raritan in Piscataway, is the home of Engineering, Pharmacy, the Library of Science and Medicine, Mathematics, and most of the science disciplines, graduate and undergraduate student housing, as well as the Administrative Services Building which houses University Undergraduate Admissions, Registrar and Scheduling, and Business Offices. Werblin Recreation Center, classroom and office buildings, labs, the football stadium, golf course, and numerous athletic fields are all found on Busch.

Livingston Campus, also located in Piscataway, borders Busch Campus and is the home of the School of Business, the School of Management and Labor Relations, and some social science disciplines, as well as the Athletic Center and the ecological preserve.

College Avenue Campus (CAC) is the home of the School of Arts and Sciences decanal offices, the School of Communication, Information and Library Studies, the Graduate School of Education, the Graduate School-New Brunswick Dean’s Office, the School of Social Work, as well as a number of humanities and social science disciplines.

Also on the College Avenue Campus is the Alexander Library, Financial Aid, and classroom buildings. Only a short walk from the train and bus service linking New Brunswick to New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Princeton, and other points of interest, it is the main administrative campus in New Brunswick.

Cook and Douglass Campuses, in New Brunswick, are adjacent to each other. Cook Campus is home to the School of Environmental and Biological Sciences (SEBS). Along with many classroom buildings, residence halls, and labs, these campuses house the college Research Farm, the AgBioTech Center, the Levin Theatre, the Mabel Smith Douglass Library, the agricultural museum, the Eagleton Institute of Politics, and the Institute for Research on Women.

The range of the university is wide, not only geographically but also academically. Within the three campuses—Camden, New Brunswick, and Newark—there are twenty-three degree-granting divisions, eleven in New Brunswick alone.

There are two undergraduate degree-granting schools in New Brunswick. Each has its own particular goals and mission and policies concerning admissions, academic standing, and graduation requirements. Both, however, must meet common university standards. Each school has an administrative code that you will see on rosters, student grade reports, and with all course information. These codes will appear next to students’ names on the grade rosters. For your information, these codes are listed with the school name below.

The undergraduate schools are:

School of Arts and Sciences (SAS) (01) is the undergraduate school for liberal arts and sciences;

School of Environmental and Biological Sciences (SEBS) (11) as the land-grant college of Rutgers, builds on a well-established tradition of offering studies in the biological, environmental, food and nutritional, marine, and agricultural sciences.

In addition to SAS and SEBS, New Brunswick is home to five other units with a professional orientation:

Mason Gross School of the Arts (07) provides professional education in the arts, with concentrations in visual arts, theatre arts, music, and dance;

The College of Engineering (14) has as its objectives the sound technical and cultural education of the student and the advancement of knowledge through research;

The College of Pharmacy (30) educates and prepares students for practicing the profession of pharmacy in the community, medical institutions, organized health care facilities, or the pharmaceutical industry;

The School of Business (33) is a two-year upper-division school offering programs in accounting, finance, management, management science and information systems, and marketing;

The School of Communication, Information and Library Studies (SCILS) (04) offers majors in communication and journalism and mass media.

As a TA you will meet students from each of these schools and each of these campuses. Identifying a students’ school may help you to understand the focus of a student's interest in your discipline: why he or she are taking your course, why his or her level of interest is so high or so low, what the rest of his or her program is like, and other pertinent facts. Of course, more will be learned by speaking with the student, but these codes are a start.

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TA Assignments
Your teaching assistantship assignment will be made by your department at the earliest possible date. Although you may have found out in June that you were awarded a teaching assistantship, you may not know the particulars of your assignment until late August or even early September. Obviously, it is in the best interest of all involved to make assignments as early as possible, but because of variables such as student enrollment, assignments are sometimes made quite late.

Although a late assignment may not present problems to a TA who will be grading, those assigned to teach may well be worried. Do not panic. Although others may have had more time to plan their courses, you can still have a successful semester if you sit down at once and get organized. The following sections may help you in doing so. Do not be shy about going to a faculty member for assistance. Every department should have someone to assist and advise TAs. Find that person and get the help you need.

The more prepared you are on the first day of class, the more secure you will be. No one, of course, can offer a blueprint for how to teach a class, but the following suggestions for preparation and organization of classes may give you some direction as you begin to plot your course.

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The First Day
Not surprisingly, many TAs are particularly apprehensive about the first day of class, imagining all of the things that could go wrong when they walk into the classroom. Although most TAs recognize that they do have the necessary background knowledge in a subject—acceptance to and survival in graduate school is a confirmation of this—many panic at the idea of conveying this knowledge to a group of seemingly uninterested and judgmental students. The transition from student/learner and somewhat passive receiver of knowledge to teacher/educator and active center of the class can be unnerving. Bear in mind that it is natural to be nervous on the first day; even experienced teachers feel anxious in facing a new class, a new semester. Taking the time to prepare well beforehand will help insure that the first class will go smoothly; indeed, it may even be fun.

As you walk into the classroom or lab on the first day, remember that students make certain automatic assumptions about the teacher, the first being that since you are the teacher you must know what you are doing. Your position—the person in front of the classroom—vests you with an authority that you may think unmerited, but your students will not. Use this knowledge to bolster your confidence before you step into the room.

The expectations of the students will certainly not carry you through an entire semester—you must, after all, demonstrate your competence as the semester goes on—but they may give you added courage on those first few days. Finally, remember that the students are probably feeling more than a bit anxious and worried about how you, the teacher, will judge them.

Among the common fears expressed by new TAs are:

  • What if I can’t control the class?
  • What if I freeze and am unable to think or speak?
  • What if I lose my train of thought?
  • What if a student asks me a question I can’t answer?
  • What if I give a wrong answer or make a mistake in presentation?
  • What if a demonstration or experiment does not work properly?

Planning classes with care may help to eliminate some of these worries, but it is best to accept the fact that sooner or later you probably will make a mistake; it won’t, however, be the end of the world. Consider beforehand how to respond to such a situation, and it becomes less threatening.

Although everything may not work out exactly as you planned, and, frankly, some lessons may just fall flat, this does not mean that you have failed as a teacher. Learn from your mistakes and go on; be assured that your errors will not seem as disastrous to the students as they do to you. If you realize that you have given incorrect information, correct it at once. Do not try to cover up your mistake—this will only make things worse. Admitting that you were wrong will not cause students to lose respect for you; refusing to admit a mistake may.

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First Impressions
First impressions are important. What you do, say, and, even how you dress send out signals to the students in the class. Undergraduates often shop around for classes during the first week of school, so you will want to give your students an accurate picture of what they can expect over the semester.

Teachers can set a certain tone for the semester by their overall behavior and appearance. For example, a teacher who is not punctual sends a clear message to the students. (TAs, however, should not be dismayed during the first week by students who wander in late; they may have registration difficulties, problems finding classrooms, or miscalculating the time it takes to get from class to class. Be understanding.) Instructors, however, should iron out all minor problems beforehand—i.e., where the classroom is, how long it takes to get there—to set a good example. On the first day and throughout the semester, arrive on time and begin classes promptly.

You may, of course, dress in any way that you feel is appropriate, but know that students will interpret your dress in certain ways. Dressing a bit more formally than your students, who may be uncomfortably near you in age, makes an important distinction which may help to establish proper authority. A more formal or conservative jacket and tie or dress may make you feel more comfortable as you step into the role of teacher. This is not to suggest that you should go out and buy a new wardrobe or try to become someone you are not, but to remind you to consider the powerful messages clothing conveys.

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The First Class
To begin, you must decide what you intend to achieve with your first class. Do you wish to plunge into the course work almost immediately, establishing a fast pace and a sense of purpose in the class? Or do you wish to spend the first day getting to know something about your students and letting them get to know you, taking time to establish an informal, more personal relationship with them? Each approach has its advantages and disadvantages; the choice depends upon your style as a teacher, your vision of the course, and your overall goals.

The most straightforward way to tell the students what to expect during the coming semester is to hand out a syllabus that gives the students a clear plan for the entire semester (see Preparing a Syllabus, p. 22). The syllabus is a preview of coming attractions, presenting an overview of the course that will help students decide during the drop/add period whether or not to commit themselves to the class.

Taking attendance, at least for the first two weeks of class, is an absolute necessity in order to help to establish an accurate class roster. Some departments require a teacher to report attendance numbers to them during the drop/add period (the first week of each semester) so that they can assign late-registering students to an appropriate section. It is in your own interest to comply with departmental policy in this—otherwise, you may find your class over- or underpopulated. Also, some departments require a report of absence-dates at the semester’s end for students who have received low grades.

Again, in addition to monitoring student attendance, taking attendance daily also helps you to learn the students’ names quickly. Making the effort to match faces with names tells the students that—to this teacher at least—they are individuals. Learning the names of your students is perhaps the single most effective way of demonstrating to them that the classroom will be a place where their individual ideas and personal development are valued. Of course, this is difficult if not impossible in a large lecture class, but in most lab sections, recitations, and smaller classes, it is possible. Some teachers ask that the students take the same places, at least for the first few weeks, so that it will be easier to remember names. Whether you call your students by their first or last names depends upon the relative formality or informality you wish to establish in your class, but try to be sensitive to all students. Do not make older students uncomfortable by addressing them as Mr. or Ms. if you are calling the rest of the class by their first names, unless they specifically request you to do so.

How should the students address you? Again, this is your own decision. The level of familiarity you wish to establish is something that you, not the students, should determine. Let your openness, humor, sensitivity, and good-will establish a warm rapport with your students while maintaining the distance necessary to the teacher’s role. Whatever you choose to be called, inform the students at the beginning. Do not merely tell them that your name is Ann Smith. This forces them to decide whether to call you Ann or Ms. Smith, or Mrs. Smith, or Dr. Smith. Write your name on the blackboard at the beginning of class in the way that you wish to hear it all semester. Put it on your syllabus and on all other handouts. Tell them your name again when you introduce yourself. (You would be amazed at the number of students who do not know their instructor’s name at the end of the semester; don’t let your students be among these legions.)

So, what do you do after you have taken attendance, handed out your syllabus, and introduced yourself? Whatever you do, make sure that you have planned it carefully. Students feel more confident when they see that their teacher is organized and prepared. You will probably go over the syllabus, clarifying points about such matters as grading and your attendance policy where necessary, answering questions as they arise. Students have a right to know what to expect from a course in terms of workload, grading, and other matters. For lab instructors, it is often necessary to open the first class with a discussion of lab protocol and safety procedures.

These preliminaries will generally not take up the entire class period. Many teachers like to spend time learning about the students, gaining background information which may be used later in the semester. Some distribute index cards and ask the students to respond to a series of questions designed to give them an opportunity to describe the range of their knowledge in the subject and the outside interests they have that may be of use in planning discussions. Other teachers prefer having the students give information about themselves orally to the class in order to break the ice and accustom the students to speaking in class.

An alternate way of beginning the semester is by presenting a mini-lecture that gives a broad overview of the subject of the course and a general idea of various scholarly approaches to this field of knowledge. There is, perhaps, no better way to give the students an idea of what to expect from the course. One problem with this approach, however, is that the class will almost certainly change in size or composition by the second or third class, so some students will invariably miss the opening lecture. Some teachers save this lecture for the second class, when the students have already had time to do some preliminary reading in the texts. Students who do not arrive until the second or even third class may be at a slight disadvantage, but they will also understand that time in the class will not be wasted and their regular attendance is required.

Other teachers prefer to begin the semester with a discussion. This takes some of the pressure off the new teacher (although a discussion class presents its own unique challenges—see The Discussion Class, p. 42) and signals to the students that the course will demand engagement and participation. The teacher should work to encourage everyone to join in. A discussion can be a valuable way of introducing some of the concerns of the class while allowing the teacher to gauge the levels of knowledge of the students. In addition, asking students to identify themselves before they speak will speed up the name-learning process.

All teachers will decide for themselves the combination of practices that will strike the correct balance for their class on the first day. Here, as in all social situations, a number of factors come into play, the most forceful of which is the personality of the individual; in the end, who you are will determine the styles and methods of the class

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Creating the Right Atmosphere
One of the hallmarks of a good teacher is the ability to create a classroom environment where all students feel comfortable, free to respond, to offer opinions, and to ask questions. This atmosphere will probably develop over the course of the semester, as you and the students begin to trust each other. Before this can happen, you, the teacher, must be comfortable. Although as a novice teacher you may be anxious, make an attempt to relax. Do not look upon your students as the enemy, waiting for you to make a mistake so they can jump on you, but consider them partners in learning. Both you and your students have things to teach each other, and both you and your students can make mistakes.

Never belittle or criticize a student for making a mistake. You must, of course, correct the error, but it is best to do this in a kindly and non-judgmental way. Students will only participate freely if they know they will not be castigated for making mistakes. Offer praise whenever possible but only when deserved. Teachers who say “very good” after every student response, brilliant or inane, run the risk of devaluing all praise and help neither the good nor the poor student.

All students in your class should feel they have an equal claim to your attention. Consider your non-verbal behavior. When you look around the class, do you tend to make eye contact only with certain students? Do you teach to one side of the room, thus encouraging students to choose desks on the other side to avoid your gaze? Be on guard against personal prejudices and unconscious stereotyping (see Our Common Purposes, p. 108). Do you call on women as frequently as you do men? Do you find yourself letting class discussions be dominated by either men or women? Are there certain ethnic or racial groups with whom you feel uncomfortable? In your classroom, do you make eye contact with members of these groups as often as with others? Although teachers may be unaware of these habits, students will notice, so guard against them.

Don’t feel obligated to be a stern disciplinarian at all times. Although you should expect students, for the most part, to conform to the rules you have set, be understanding when one comes to you with a legitimate excuse or a request for a special favor—an extended deadline or a make-up test, for example.

You do not have to grant every request, and repeated ones by the same student should be looked upon with suspicion, but hear the student out and then make a decision based on the circumstances, not on some arbitrary rule you have established (see especially Non-traditional Students, p. 89).

In conclusion, listen to your students and treat them with respect and courtesy. Unless you do this, it is futile for you to expect the same from them.

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Bringing the World into the Classroom
The ideal classroom would be a place without walls or boundaries, where the students and the “outside world” were continuously in contact, constantly interacting in interesting, often unpredictable, ways. In such a place, students could easily recognize how variously the subject matter of the class was connected to that world.

Although such a classroom is not physically practical, teachers do have an obligation to break down some of the walls that neatly compartmentalize knowledge and to help their students become informed, intelligent citizens. Teachers are much more than walking textbooks. Rather than limiting themselves to conveying a narrowly defined body of knowledge to their students, they can help them gain some real sense of the world beyond the classroom and beyond abstract problems or faceless histories.

Individual teaching styles will surely have an impact on the choices that TAs make. Some people feel very comfortable about introducing controversial topics or personal beliefs to their students; others feel that to do this goes beyond the bounds of the teacher/student relationship. Deciding how far to go may sometimes prove so problematic that the decision not to stray from familiar paths may be simpler. Fear of proselytizing or of giving biased or incorrect information intimidates many TAs—and these are legitimate fears—but these concerns should not stop teachers from examining their classroom strategies and considering how to broaden the scope of their classes, how to begin to help their students to make connections between the subject discussed in class and the rest of the world.

Many techniques are available for enlarging the scope of the class. Teachers can make sure that the readings for their class represent a number of different viewpoints. Students are often surprised to find that a textbook is not just an objective compendium of facts but a necessarily subjective reading of a topic that may not be universally accepted. It is useful to bring in guest speakers so that students hear an authority who is not in total agreement with the teacher. Finally, use your students’ individual differences of opinions as a means of analyzing arguments and testing various positions.

By making the relationship between that which we speak about in our classes and that which affects the world around us explicit, we can help our students see their own connectedness to the world and help them to understand their own responsibilities towards improving and caring for that world.

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Preparing a Syllabus
Before preparing a syllabus, the TA teaching a class for the first time should meet with the professor supervising the course to discuss his or her expectations for it. In many introductory classes with large enrollments, the syllabus is designed by members of the department. If you are teaching a lab or recitation section, your syllabus will almost certainly be defined by the work to be covered in the lecture. In such classes, fewer opportunities exist for input by the TA. In some classes, however, TAs may have sole responsibility for the materials covered and the pace of completion. Although here, too, consultation with a faculty member can be useful, even essential, the final decisions may be left entirely up to the TA.

Preparing a good syllabus requires careful thought and some skill. Judging the amount of time needed for a given topic, providing the right amount of background reading, and considering the best times of the semester for tests and papers are subjects that require careful pedagogical and practical consideration. (For example, no exams may be given during the final two weeks of the semester.) The teacher who is constantly falling behind in the scheduled work is not doing the students a favor; students often see this as an indication that they too can fall behind. Although it is not necessary to be absolutely rigid about sticking to the syllabus, students appreciate a teacher who is able to organize his or her own and the students’ time effectively.

The design of the syllabus will be determined largely by the subject matter. For example, some subjects, like history and literature, lend themselves to chronological arrangement, and others, such as science and engineering, may require organization around general topics. Whichever method you choose, it should be made clear to the students from the beginning. In addition, the overall connection between the class material and the text, the labs, or other elements of the course must be explained.

Alter your syllabus as little as possible after the semester begins. It is unfair to change the course requirements after students can no longer change the section or drop the course. You cannot expect to remain on schedule at all times, but you should try to create a realistic syllabus that gives a good indication of what the class will achieve over a semester.

A good syllabus should:

  • CITE the material to be covered—all texts, reserve readings, and other materials;
  • DETAIL all course requirements, the number and kinds of exams and papers, and the dates they are due;
  • DEFINE all policies on grading, attendance, make-up work, and class participation. For example, if students will be graded on a curve, explain what the method will be;
  • EXPLAIN policies on plagiarism and academic dishonesty; set limits on group work, defining how independently you expect students to work on homework assignments (see Academic Integrity, p. 97);
  • INCLUDE your name, your office location, hours, and telephone, home number if you wish (see Office Hours, p. 32).

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Choosing the Text
The choice of a text is a central consideration in planning any class. As a TA, you will find that in many of the courses to which you are assigned you have no input about the choice of books. Especially in courses with multiple sections, members of the department will choose what they consider the most useful books for the majority of students. In this case, you are not responsible for ordering books. The department will supply you with a desk copy of each book and, sometimes, with a teacher’s guide. (Although a teacher’s guide may at first seem a useful tool, most teachers soon find that they are better off without it; so approach such aids with caution.) Review each book carefully and decide how you wish to use it. There will certainly be chapters you will want to stress, others you will wish to minimize. Consider how much supplementary material will be necessary for your students to reach the goals you have set for the course, either through photocopied materials that they can purchase or books and articles placed on reserve at the library (see Libraries, p. 66, for information on how to place materials on reserve; also Preparing a Reading List, p. 26).

What should you do if you absolutely hate a chosen text? You may want to speak to the instructor in charge of the course, explaining your reservations, perhaps suggesting another one. (Keep in mind, however, that almost certainly no change can be effected for the upcoming semester.) Although the instructor may sympathize with your complaints, he or she may still have valid reasons for choosing that book. The instructor may also suggest strategies for making the most of the book. Experience may even cause you to revise your opinion on its usefulness; or, if your reasons are compelling, the instructor may consider changing the text for the next semester. In any event, you will almost certainly have to use the book in the upcoming semester. You may want to share your feelings with the class, giving the students your estimation of both the strengths and weaknesses of the text, but try to stress what you see as positive. If you are wholly negative, students may wonder why you or the department made them waste their time (and money) on what you are telling them is a book of dubious value. Remember, too, that these students do not have your advanced knowledge of the subject and may find the book very useful in helping them to understand the basics.

TAs who are given the freedom to develop their own booklist are confronted with a different set of issues. Among the factors a conscientious teacher will consider are:

  1. What are my goals for the course? Which book or books can best further these goals? The more clearly you formulate your plan for the semester, the more surely you can choose the books to help you carry it out.

  2. Realistically speaking, how much material can be covered in a comprehensive way over the semester? Would it be better to choose excerpts rather than assign entire books? How much reading can students be expected to do, taking into consideration the level of difficulty of the texts? Experienced instructors in your department will have a fair idea of how much work students can or will cover. In some fields, for example, there are fairly standard “rules of thumb” concerning how many pages of reading per class meeting can be assigned.

  3. How expensive will these books be? Is it better to order one large anthology and supplement it with photocopies or to order six or seven smaller books, which may be more expensive? Although cost should not be the only consideration, given the price of books today, this factor has to be taken into account. Note, too, that if you choose to rely heavily on photocopied materials, copyright laws must be taken into account.

Once you have compiled what you think is a good preliminary book list, take this along with your syllabus to the department chair or to an instructor who has already taught this course or a similar one. Ask his or her opinion of the list. Consider all suggestions—remember they have more extensive classroom experience than you—but, in the end, it is you who will determine the structure and focus of the course.

Once you have decided upon the booklist, you must complete a course book order form for the class. The department administrator will be able to provide you with the form. You may also place your order through the bookstore's website. These lists should be completed as soon as possible so that the books will be available at the bookstore by the first day of classes. Delayed book orders can wreak havoc on the most carefully planned syllabus.

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Supplementary Materials
Many teachers choose to photocopy materials from various sources to supplement the text and their lectures. Your department administrator will be able to tell you the photocopy limit for your section. Most departments will copy a limited number of pages per class, per semester. If you go beyond this limit, you are charged at a per-copy rate. Since this can run into a substantial amount over the semester, ascertain the department's policy before you proceed. Some teachers prepare packets of materials that the students must purchase. Local commercial copy shops will usually copy, bind, and sell these packets to the students for a reasonable price. It is your responsibility to make sure that you are not violating copyright laws with your packet.

Take care not to overwhelm students with handouts; the purpose is to clarify, not to make things more difficult.

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Preparing a Reading List
An additional way to further students’ intellectual development is by providing them with a supplementary reading list at the beginning of each semester. By encouraging your students to do additional reading in the subject and providing them with a list that reflects the diversity of the field, you are pushing your students to investigate a topic beyond the ordinary limits of the course.

When designing such a list of readings, always think of the student; that is, the works should be challenging but not incomprehensible to the typical undergraduate. Certainly include works of varying levels of difficulty but indicate the range on your list. An annotated list works best, with the teacher adding comments about the pleasures and difficulties of each book. If students would benefit from special information about an author, provide it. Biographical information about the author’s life or historical period might also be useful.

Recognize the difficulties an undergraduate might have with certain texts and be honest about them. A student may still choose to read one of the more difficult books but may struggle with it a bit longer before giving up because you have given warning of the potential problems. If students have been alerted to the difficulties, they will not consider it a personal failing if they have trouble understanding the text—they may even view mastering the book as a personal challenge.

Constructing a “For Further Reading” list is valuable, even in classes where students are not required or expected to do outside reading. It signals to the students that you view the subject as an ongoing pursuit, one of sustaining interest, that the student will continue to study over a lifetime. Occasionally alluding to these texts in class or choosing interesting examples from them may help to motivate students to read the texts at a future date. Such lists also give the teacher an opportunity to demonstrate to students the arbitrariness of boundaries between disciplines: the science or math teacher who includes fictional works, the literature teacher who recommends anthropological studies, the psychology teacher who includes a book of poetry on the list—all stretch the boundaries of the disciplines and the intellectual boundaries of the students in a challenging way.

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Record Keeping
Before the semester begins, consider the kinds of records that must be maintained on students and devise a workable system for doing so. The University mandates that all grades be kept on file by the instructor for at least one year; some departments also keep final exams for that period of time. Many experienced teachers suggest that you keep this information for as long as possible but certainly for at least five years.

Student attendance and performance should be accurately reflected in these records in as detailed a manner as is practical. All letter or number grades for quizzes, exams, homework, and in-class work must be properly recorded. In addition, many teachers find it useful to reserve a space next to each student’s record for a brief final evaluation of his or her strengths and weaknesses (one or two sentences at most). This brief note may assist you in the future when the student asks for a letter of recommendation.

Take time to record all information clearly and accurately. You will have to refer to this information several times in the course of the semester: at mid-semester when it is time to issue warning notices, at semester’s end when you are calculating final grades, and at any time in the semester when you meet with students to discuss their progress in the course. These tasks will be much less time-consuming if your grade information is in order.

Some instructors keep all grades on file on a computer. This may simplify the task, but computers being what they are, it is essential to keep a backup copy of all records. Also keep in mind the possible security risks: who else will have access to your records? Perhaps the best way to manage electronic record-keeping is to print out and maintain updated hard copies throughout the semester for use in class and as a backup in case of major computer failure.

In fact, it is a good practice for all TAs to keep a second copy of their students’ grades. Make it a habit to photocopy the current semester’s gradebook as the term progresses. Although this may seem overly-cautious, one hears enough stories about lost or stolen grade books to warrant this precaution. If you lose your records, the burden of proof for a grade is on you, and the resulting problems could become a bureaucratic nightmare.

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Rosters/Drop-Adds
Class Rosters are available online at: https://www.acs.rutgers.edu/rosters.  This web-based application assigns two roles to instructional faculty:

READ - can view and download Class Rosters, and can submit warning grades.

ADMINISTRATIVE - can view, download, submit warning grades, and can grant and revoke privileges to others.

You should have been assigned a role by your department chair or dean’s office.  To access “Class Rosters” online, you will be prompted to provide your NET ID and RCI password.  If you don’t have an RCI account and wish to establish one, visit the NBCS website to create one. Contact your department chair if you have questions or need clarification regarding your role in relation to class rosters.

The online electronic rosters are updated as students change their registration. Do not attempt to add the names of students who do not appear on your roster and do not attempt to delete the names of students who have not attended.

Some students do considerable “shopping” for courses during the first weeks of a semester; others will be deregistered after the first two weeks of classes because they have not paid their current term bills. (Once these students pay their term bills, their courses are automatically restored; they do not have to reregister for their classes.) During the first week, students may add classes (please consult your department regarding specific special permission number procedures); during the first two weeks, students can drop courses without incurring any penalty. For the next six weeks a “W” will be recorded on the student’s transcript. After eight weeks, a student can drop a course only with the permission of the dean; after the 12th week of classes, a student can drop a course only with the permission of both the college dean and the faculty member teaching the course. Hence, course rosters are often in considerable flux. When you submit final grades for the semester, you will have an opportunity to indicate that a student has ‘never attended’ or add a student’s name and RUID number to the roster; hence, you should keep careful records throughout the semester.

Warning rosters are generally available between the fourth and seventh week of the semester. You will be notified of the specific due date for warning rosters. The first hourly exam or some substantial graded assignment should be scheduled and graded before the seventh week of classes so that students who do poorly and are in danger of failing can be notified.

The Warning Roster will list all of the students registered for your class. If a student’s name is not listed, please send the student to their dean’s office to properly register. Warning grades are as follows: W1 = Warning for poor performance; W2 = Warning for poor attendance; and W3 = Warning for both poor attendance and poor performance; and, comments should be entered next to the warning grades.

The final roster is the Grade Roster. Grades must be submitted within 48 hours of the final exam as scheduled by the university. Instructors are expected to submit final grades using the on-line electronic roster system; however, in special circumstances instructors may consult with their departmental staff regarding procedures for submitting final grades via a paper roster. It is vital that you submit both your Warning Roster and your Grade Roster in a timely manner.

For undergraduate students, you may submit a grade of either A, B, B+, C, C+, D, F, NG, TZ, or TF. (Note that minus grades are not permitted.) Assign a grade of NG (no grade given) to a student who has not attended the course. The NG will have no immediate effect on a student’s GPA; however, if the situation is not resolved within the following semester, the NG will convert to an F, and the GPA will be recalculated accordingly. Assign a grade of TZ when a student is unable to complete the semester’s course work due to a verifiable emergency situation; reach an agreement with the student as soon as possible as to how the course should be completed. The TZ will have no immediate effect on a student’s GPA, however, if the situation is not resolved within the following semester, the TZ will convert to an F, and the GPA will be recalculated accordingly. Assign a grade of TF if the student does not complete the course work required, or has not taken the final exam. The TF will be calculated into the GPA immediately. If the course work is not made up within the following semester, the TF converts to an F. (Similarly, instructors can submit TD, TC, TC+, TB, or TB+ grades if the instructor believes that the student should receive that letter grade even if s/he completes no further work for the course. T grades can never be lowered.) Please consult with your department regarding procedures for submitting changes of grades after the semester has ended.

Only when submitting the Final Grade Roster may you add a student’s name to the roster, providing the student has been attending your class the entire semester.  Please add the student’s RUID number, school, and grade next to the student’s name.  If, at the end of the semester, the student has still not registered for the course, the grade will not appear on the grade report (or on the student’s transcript) until the student contacts the office of the academic dean of their college or professional school and receives written permission to have the course added.

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The Classroom
You will be assigned a specific classroom or lab when you are given your first roster at the beginning of the semester. If possible, go and look at the classroom before the first class meeting to judge its suitability. The logistics of scheduling an enormous number of classes make it almost impossible to get a class location changed once the assignments are made, but if the classroom is totally inappropriate for the course you intend to teach—in size, available facilities, etc.—report the problem at once to the departmental administrator or to someone in Scheduling and Space Management (732/932-2572). He or she will do whatever is possible to accommodate you, but changes can be made only when essential.

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Facilities Maintenance
Although what happens in the classroom is naturally much more important than the physical appearance of the room, no one should have to spend a semester in an unpleasant environment. When you look at the classroom or lab for the first time, take note of its physical condition. Is the classroom clean? Do all of the lights work? Does the heat/air conditioning work? Are there enough desks? If you will need a podium, does the room have one? Is there an adequate supply of chalk and erasers? Are there broken windows or locks? In most cases the classroom will be at least adequate. If there is a problem, however, act at once to remedy it. An annoying buzzing light will distract even the most interested student, just as an overheated classroom will lull even the most attentive to sleep.

Facilities Maintenance (732/445-1234) should be notified in the event of problems with plumbing, air conditioning, repairs, maintenance, classroom supplies, or broken locks. The operator will refer your problem to the appropriate department for necessary action. If it is an emergency, the operator can radio to one of the workers to respond immediately.

Facilities Maintenance has an online form where instructors may submit a request.

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Office Hours: Getting an Office
The university requires that all teachers make themselves available to their students outside of class for advisement, so TAs with teaching assignments should be assigned office space at the beginning of the semester. Office assignments are usually made before classes begin or during the first few weeks of the semester. Because of the shortage of office space in most departments, it is likely that you will have to share your office with several other TAs. Teaching and class schedules are so varied that this presents fewer problems than may seem probable at first.

Unfortunately, in some departments, space is at such a premium that TAs who grade or teach labs and recitations may be without office assignments at the beginning of the semester. If you find yourself without an office, act as soon as you can. First, ask your department administrator for suggestions about what to do. If no help is received from this quarter, speak to the instructor with whom you are working. Some faculty members allow TAs to hold office hours in their own offices at times when they will not be using them. If you are unable to coordinate times with a faculty member, consider other suitable places for your students to meet with you. Try to find an unused classroom where you can meet students undisturbed or an area in one of the libraries where conversation is possible. Be sure to announce in class where and when you will be available, and then be there faithfully at the appointed time. Sometimes these unofficial locations can be a plus, the casual setting making students more comfortable about approaching and speaking to you, but the TA may have to work harder to sustain an appropriately formal teacher/student relationship.

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Office Hours: Scheduling
The importance of maintaining regular office hours cannot be overemphasized—students must feel that they have access to their teachers. No matter how good a teacher you are, if the students feel that you are inaccessible, too busy to meet with them, they will feel cheated and may lose interest in the class.

The amount of time an instructor schedules for office hours is a decision to be made by the individual, based on the needs of the students. Most instructors agree, however, that one or two periods a week are simply not enough. Student schedules are so varied, with classes spread around so many campuses, that meetings may sometimes be very difficult to arrange. Some teachers find that scheduling office hours before or after class works out well because many students try to avoid scheduling back-to-back classes. Consider the needs of your students before setting office hours. Holding your office hours at reasonable times makes it clear to your students that you do wish to meet with them; holding office hours on Friday afternoons at three o’clock or on Monday mornings at eight o’clock insures your seeing only the most industrious or desperate students. As a rule, it is probably best to establish a minimum of two periods a week for office hours while letting students know that you are available for conferences at other times by appointment. Sometimes you may set up appointments with the students in the library, if that is more convenient for both of you, or in one of the student lounges. If you are teaching a large section, you must expect to set aside more than two periods to accommodate all students who wish to speak to you.

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Office Hours: Uses
After setting aside the required time for your office hours and announcing them to the students, what then? Who makes the next move, you or the students? If you sit back and wait for the students to appear at your door, you are letting a great opportunity pass by. Some students will finally materialize (usually late in the semester when they are worried about their final grades), but for the most part you will spend some quiet and undisturbed hours in your office over the semester. This is great if you plan to use your hours as a time for class preparation or paper grading, but it is not so great if you hope to establish strong and positive relationships with your students.

Some suggestions for getting students to come to your office:

  1. During office hours, keep your office door open. Let the students know that you are there and available.
  2. When students do come into your office, put your work aside and make them feel like welcome guests, not intruders. For some students, it takes an enormous amount of courage to go and speak to a faculty member face to face. Do not justify these fears by scaring the students away.
  3. When you meet with students, look at them and listen. Put your work away, and give them your undivided attention. Let them do the talking. Pay attention. Look interested. Be interested.
  4. Come into class a little early, stay a bit late, and chat with your students. If you establish a friendly relationship with them in the classroom, they will be less hesitant about coming to see you later.

Do not discount the importance of this kind of contact for your students and yourself. One-on-one teacher/student tutorials should be the norm, not the exception. No two students learn in the same way, and such office visits help you to discover the various ways students approach the course.

Office hours are valuable not only for the students but also for the TAs. A few students coming in with the same problem should suggest to you the topics that need to be explained more clearly, the concepts or assignments that have been misunderstood by more than one student. In addition, instructors can gain some valuable feedback from the students about their effectiveness as teachers. If students trust you and feel comfortable, they will be able to express their feelings about the weaknesses and strengths of your class; and the information can help you improve your classroom performance. How can students be motivated to come to the office? First, the instructor can remind the students frequently of the scheduled hours and other appointment possibilities. Tell students regularly that you are there every week, same time, same place, and that they should not hesitate to bring up any difficulties they are having in the class. Many teachers require that all students schedule an appointment before or after the first paper, or after the first exam, so that their progress can be discussed. Once students find your office for this required appointment, they are more apt to make a return visit. If you write a comment on an essay—"Why not come and talk to me about this in my office?"—most students will interpret this as a command rather than a suggestion. Many students who would not initiate this contact are, nevertheless, grateful for the opportunity to let the teacher get to know them a little better. And, again, once the ice has been broken, the second visit becomes much easier.

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Office Hours: Problems
If a student comes to you with personal problems, you should listen; but remember that you are not always qualified to help. Do not attempt to be a counselor or psychiatrist. You can best assist the student by knowing where to find help and by urging the student to make an appointment with a more qualified person, perhaps letting the student make the call from your office phone. If possible, walk the student over to the appropriate office. Always be supportive and understanding, but recognize your limitations (see Troubled Students, p.106; Counseling Services for Troubled Students, p. 107; TA Helpline, p. 86).

A problem some TAs encounter is the student who comes once a week for office hours and wants to just sit down and chat. Although this may not always cause a problem, at times it can be very frustrating. Other students may see this student in your office and assume that you are busy, possibly putting off students who have valid reasons for seeing you. Be frank in a case like this. Kindly but firmly tell the student that although you would like to talk, other students should also have the opportunity to discuss the class. Stress the fact that you will be more than willing to discuss any legitimate problem. Of course, if you suspect that the student’s frequent visits are symptoms of an emotional problem, you will want to help the student to receive the proper counseling (see Counseling Services for Troubled Students, p. 107).

Another possible concern is the student who comes to your office at hours other than your office hours. If you are not engaged in any particular work, you may decide to see the student; but if the student is one who generally seems apprehensive or appears to be under some stress, you should welcome the opportunity at any time to open up the lines of communication. Use your own judgment about the student’s needs. But, if you have budgeted your time carefully and set this period aside for your own work, your students should be expected to respect your decision about office hours except in extreme cases. Explain to these students that you cannot speak to them now, but that you will gladly see them during your regular office hours or perhaps sooner at an agreed-upon, mutually convenient time.

Making the most of your office hours is a fundamental way of ensuring that your students make the most of your class. A teacher who is able to establish personal contact with most of the students early in the semester not only helps the individual students but the class as a whole.

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Attendance Policy for TAs
If for any reason you are unable to conduct a class for which you are scheduled, notify the department or the appropriate person as soon as possible. Missed classwork must be made up at some point in the semester, placing a future burden on the TA and on the students. If the TA is in charge of a lab section, a substitute must be found because in most cases the students will not be able to make up the lab. Students would be justified in complaining about a TA who misses classes or who is regularly late just as you have a responsibiltiy to speak to a student with these problems.

Everybody, of course, becomes ill at one time or another or has an emergency which prevents him or her from attending to duties. In these situations, do what you can to make your absence cause as little disruption as possible in both your own life and in that of your students. Know beforehand the department’s policy on absences and the appropriate person to notify about them.

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Attendance Policy for Students
The question of an attendance policy is one that TAs should decide before the beginning of the semester. A clearly established policy will avoid many problems, but to be effective any policy must be enforced consistently and equally. This is not to suggest inflexibility; exceptions can and, at times, should be made, but if every case becomes an exception, then policy—and part of your credibility—flies out of the window. So, make these decisions at the beginning and then follow through as much as is realistically possible.

How strict an attendance policy should be established? Official university policy is that attendance “shall be expected.” This is generally interpreted by faculty and administration to mean that attendance is required. How closely should a TA monitor the attendance of individual students? Clearly, in a large lecture class, taking attendance is time-consuming and difficult to manage unless the instructor is willing to circulate a sign-in sheet at every class. Even in smaller classes, however, where it is possible to monitor attendance, some teachers are reluctant to establish a strict attendance policy because they feel that college students should be allowed more freedom than high school students and should be free to attend or not attend as they choose. Many teachers just do not want to waste precious class time in taking attendance.

There are, however, compelling reasons for requiring attendance and more or less painless ways of managing the necessary record-keeping. Perhaps the most important reason for regulating attendance is that it forces you to learn your students’ names very quickly. You may be surprised at how soon you recognize students by name, and at that point you can take attendance quickly and silently at the beginning of the class period. In addition, by setting a limit on the number of absences, the teacher is signaling to the students that what takes place in class is important. You are not merely rehashing what the professor said in the lecture class, or restating the material found in the text, but you are using your recitation, lab, or lecture to enlarge the students’ understanding of the topic. Taking attendance may also assist you at the end of the semester when compiling grades. Your decision about a student with a true borderline grade could be influenced by the student’s attendance and participation; in cases such as this, being able to match a face with a name is -helpful (see The First Class, p. 17).

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The Lecture
The most traditional form of college teaching, and still the most common, is the formal lecture. Nearly all university courses, even those which are dominated by discussions or lab work, require the instructor at one point or another to deliver a lecture. Contemplating their first lecture frightens many new TAs and causes much unnecessary anxiety. Thoughts of abject failure—losing one's train of thought, omitting vital material, boring the class—plague many TAs. As with so many other aspects of teaching, careful preparation can at least lessen the problems that lecturers may encounter.

Before beginning to compile material for a lecture, it is useful to pose a few questions: What is the purpose of the lecture? Is it meant to introduce entirely new material, or is it intended to summarize material already covered? Is the lecture an expansion of materials covered by the text, or is it a review? How is the substance of the lecture related to the text or the lab materials? The answers to such questions will help to determine the focus of your lecture, and then you may begin to shape your lecture.

One of the toughest problems faced by new teachers is in judging the abilities of their class. The material presented must be challenging enough so that students are not bored, yet not so difficult that they are lost, overwhelmed, or discouraged. Striking a reasonable balance between these two points may take practice—and even experienced teachers sometimes misjudge—but you will soon hit your stride.

Many new instructors tend to overprepare because they think they must know everything written about a topic before they can teach it, or they are afraid that the students will ask difficult questions. TAs should realize that it is always possible to say to students, "I don't know, but I'll find out." In addition, remember that students are probably not as interested as you in the current scholarly debates and controversies. Later on, when they have a fuller understanding of the field, they may be interested, but first give them the basic information. On the other hand, you do not wish to insult your students by presenting a lecture so elementary that the students barely need to listen (and certainly won't as the semester progresses). You should assume that your audience is composed of intelligent, interested adults who, while they may not have deep knowledge of the field, are capable and desirous of learning.

Once you have decided upon the depth of material to be covered, you can begin to prepare your notes. Perhaps the worst way to give a lecture is by writing out the entire "script" beforehand and reading it to the class. Unless you are an exceptionally gifted speaker, this will alienate and bore your students. Beginning instructors may feel more confident with a typed text in front of them, but this confidence is gained at the loss of some excitement and much spontaneity.

Instead, prepare a good outline for yourself, including all the main topics, sub-topics, sub-sub-topics, illustrations, examples, and anecdotes, detailed enough so that you will not unintentionally omit anything of importance. For some teachers, four to five pages are more than enough for an eighty minute class while others may need more or fewer. Using an outline rather than a prepared text allows you to pace your lectures. If a point at the beginning produces a flood of questions, time can be made up later in the lecture by eliminating some of the less important points. This is almost impossible to do if you are reading a tightly organized essay/lecture.

Do not try to cover too much in one lecture. Thoroughly explaining two or three points may be considered a real achievement. During the second half of the semester, when instructors begin to feel the pressures of time, they may try to cram two lectures into one. This usually does not save time in the end because the students rarely absorb it all, and you will probably end up spending time in the following weeks answering questions and clearing up the confusion caused by the double lecture.

Although instructors are discouraged from presenting an essay as a lecture, a lecture should be modeled on the basic elements of a good essay, with a clearly identified beginning, middle, and end. Students need to understand very specifically what you propose to talk about and how it relates to other course materials. One piece of advice, found in almost every text on teaching, offers three steps to preparing a successful lecture: Tell them what you are going to say. Say it. Tell them what you said.

Many teachers like to begin class with an amusing story, an anecdote, or a news item that is related to materials already covered or about to be covered in the class. This works as an effective transitional device for the students, easing them gently from whatever they have just left—their previous class, their job, their friends—to the work at hand in your class. Beginning the class in this way helps students to relax and makes them more receptive to the work that follows.

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The Lecture
The most traditional form of college teaching, and still the most common, is the formal lecture. Nearly all university courses, even those which are dominated by discussions or lab work, require the instructor at one point or another to deliver a lecture. Contemplating their first lecture frightens many new TAs and causes much unnecessary anxiety. Thoughts of abject failure—losing one's train of thought, omitting vital material, boring the class—plague many TAs. As with so many other aspects of teaching, careful preparation can at least lessen the problems that lecturers may encounter.

In editing your lecture so that it fits into the allocated time, avoid cutting out illustrations, examples, and anecdotes. A successful lecture is one that helps the student to comprehend the point, and often an apt illustration or example can make the difference between merely covering the material and actually teaching it. Students remember well-chosen examples and vivid illustrations.

It is a good idea when planning a lecture class to reserve some time for students' questions and responses. If you plan to cover two main topics, pause midway to give the students a chance to ask questions or make comments. Reserve time at the beginning of each class for questions. Remember that the purpose of a good lecture is to make students think, to raise questions, and to provoke responses. Allow time for this to happen. A successful lecture does not remain a monologue but develops into a dialogue.

What do students want from a lecture? First and foremost, they want to understand the material presented, to feel that the time spent in a classroom has been worthwhile. To insure this, the materials must be presented in a clear and organized way. Although you should strive to make your lectures seem natural, almost conversational, they should never be sloppy. Give your students an outline of each lecture. Either write the outline on the board or provide the students with a photocopied handout. This outline can be a distillation of your own outline, perhaps listing only the main ideas. The benefits of this handout outweigh the small amount of time that it will take you to prepare it. The students can follow your lecture more easily and identify the major and minor points without difficulty. In addition, just having a piece of paper in hand gives many students a feeling of confidence in the instructor's organization of the lecture and of the entire course.

A lecture that is coherent and organized further benefits from a lively presentation. Enthusiasm is always appreciated. Teachers, like any other public performer, must work on their delivery and movements. If your speech is difficult to understand or if your delivery unanimated, you may soon lose the interest of the class. At least at first, check and evaluate yourself regularly. Below are some of the things you should be aware of when you begin to lecture:

  1. Concentrate on your audience, not your own fears. Think about what they are experiencing rather than your own anxiety.

  2. Don't be static. A lecturer who stands or sits almost motionless for the entire class is a lecturer who had better have some pretty exciting material to keep the class interested. Use natural hand gestures as you speak and move around the class a bit, at least from the desk to the blackboard.

  3. Make eye contact with the students. Avoid keeping your eyes glued to your notes or fixed on some invisible point on the back wall or ceiling of the room. Making eye contact with the students will help you gauge how the lecture is being received by the students.

  4. Listen to your voice. Do you speak loudly enough and enunciate distinctly? Does your tone of voice change when emphasis is needed, or do you speak in a monotone? If you sound bored and uninterested, your students are apt to lose interest. Do not speak too quickly when trying to cover a large amount of material. If the students cannot understand you, they will not understand the material.

  5. Avoid filler words and phrases like "er," "uh," "oh," "hum," "you know." It is far better to pause than to fall into these annoying patterns of speech. Beware of repeating the same words over and over again—"really," "certainly," "actually," "whatever"—so that they become naggingly repetitious.

  6. Do you use the blackboard/whiteboard or other audio-visual aids to break up the monotony of one voice speaking? Even the most exciting public speaker knows that visuals are a sure way to regain an audience whose attention is fading.

  7. Always remember: you are talking to real human beings. Treat them as you would like to be treated.

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The Discussion Class
Discussion classes may at first seem a godsend to the new and nervous TA; however, running an effective discussion group often requires more skill, preparation, and perceptiveness than lecturing. Relying upon the students' participation and, to some extent, their good will, the discussion class will sink or swim at the level of student involvement. It is up to the teacher, therefore, to insure as full participation in the class as is possible, something which can be fostered through careful planning, unflagging enthusiasm, and a little bit of luck. Although it may seem contradictory to suggest that planning is needed for a kind of learning that seems based on a spontaneous exchange of ideas, there is always the prospect that the class may degenerate into a listless and undirected conversation that fails to achieve the educational goals you have set.

The shape of any discussion class is determined in large part, of course, by the kind of class you are teaching. In some courses—many humanities courses, for example—lively exchange of ideas is the very heart of the class, with most of the class time devoted to class discussion based on assigned readings. The students are assigned material to read, and they then come into class prepared to talk—to question, analyze, or offer opinions. In other courses, discussion forms a less central but no less important function. Many times the discussion class is an adjunct to a larger lecture class, allowing students to investigate crucial points in more depth than is possible in the lecture hall. In between these two types of classes are a whole range of classes which use discussion to a greater or lesser degree.

Not all subject matter lends itself to a discussion. A teacher interested in conveying specific information and facts would do well to give the students the information in a lecture or a handout and then, perhaps, use that material as the basis for a future discussion.

All instructors who make use of the discussion format—and, at one time or another, that is almost every instructor—must begin with a few basic questions. These questions will simplify and define the aims of your class and help you to begin to plan your class.

The pivotal question is: what is the purpose of the discussion? Is it meant to reinforce ideas introduced during a lecture or from the reading or to explain them in more detail? Is the purpose to allow students to make connections between the abstractions presented in the text and their own lives, or are discussions meant to introduce new material, to start the students thinking in a new direction? How are the topics under discussion related to the overall aims of the course? In some cases, these questions will be answered by the course supervisor, so it is necessary for the TA to consult with him or her before the semester begins and to maintain regular contact over the semester (see TA/Faculty Relations, p. 76). Having begun to formulate answers to these questions, the TA is ready to start planning a discussion class.

Before conducting a discussion class, instructors should make an outline of what they hope to cover in the class. This outline need not be written in stone; the TA should be flexible in moving from topic to topic and in allowing the students some latitude in the range of their discussion. With as much thoroughness as is required in preparing a lecture, an instructor should go through the details of the discussion, deciding which points are absolutely necessary, which are less important, and which can be omitted entirely. Once these priorities have been established, the instructor should formulate thought-provoking questions that may lead the students toward the decided-upon topics without dictating responses. One of the keys to a good discussion group is recognition of the fact that it is not a lecture. Do not panic if your first question fails to produce the desired response. Give the students time to think, to formulate an answer. If students seem lost, recap a bit so that they may better see what you are proposing with the question. Like a good conversation, a good discussion must evolve naturally.

In spite of all your preparations, a discussion class will only limp along unless the students are motivated to participate. Occasionally, a teacher will encounter a class that for one reason or another never catches fire, but most classes with a little encouragement and planning profit from discussions.

It is important for a teacher to establish a classroom climate conducive to the free exchange of ideas. Students should feel able to give wrong answers without being humiliated, to explore ideas without being censored. If the class seems reluctant to join in the discussion, try placing the desks in a circle. Having the students face each other forces them into making eye contact, into involvement with the rest of the group, rather than leaving them feeling isolated and disconnected. The other benefit of placing the desks in a circle is that the importance and the authority of the instructor seems temporarily minimized; the teacher becomes less threatening because he or she is no longer a dominating presence in the front of the class. By sitting down with your students, you broaden the burden of authority­—you are still the teacher, but you seem more approachable and the students feel, if not an equal responsibility, at least an increased sense of complicity in the class.

Be encouraging to your students. Show them that you are paying attention to what they are saying. Make eye contact. Offer an appropriate comment when they finish speaking. Do not just allow them to speak and then go on to another topic without acknowledging their contribution. Make positive comments about their responses if possible. Use discretion, however; do not say “very good” if the answer was not very good. Students dislike this type of dishonesty and will begin to distrust and devalue all that the teacher says.

The enthusiasm of the teacher for the topic will almost always spark student interest. Enthusiasm does not mean effusiveness or exuberance but a keen interest in and excitement about the subject matter. If a teacher’s manner is uninterested and uninteresting, even the most exciting topic will fall flat. A quiet, reserved teacher is as capable of projecting intensity for and involvement with a subject as a volatile and outspoken one. Do not try to cover your genuine interest in your discipline with a facade of detachment or with sarcastic comments. Express your ideas and feelings honestly, and your students will soon follow your example.

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The Recitation Class
Another form of discussion class is the recitation class, a small sub-group of a larger lecture class, which meets regularly as a supplement to the weekly lectures. Found primarily in the sciences, social sciences, and mathematics departments, the lecture sections are usually taught by faculty who supervise the TAs responsible for their recitation classes. The faculty member will generally determine the purpose of the recitation class, although the TA will shape the class in an individual way.

In these classes, as in all other discussion classes, the ends dictate the means. What is the class meant to do? Is the class period a review session meant to further explain material already covered by the lecture? Is the TA meant to introduce new material or to broaden the students' ideas of specific aspects of the lecture material?

Running an efficient recitation requires the TA to have a firm grasp of the course material and to keep up with the course readings, labs, and lectures. Most departments require TAs to attend all lectures for the course, an extremely useful practice. Some TAs may grumble at having to spend time sitting through introductory lectures, but there are sound reasons for doing so. First, although the syllabus may give TAs a general idea of what is being covered in class, only attendance at the lectures will show the depth and quality of the coverage, allowing the TA to estimate the materials to be covered in the next recitation. By attending lectures the TA is assured knowledge of any potentially confusing event in the lecture (a misinterpreted word or phrase, a weakly presented blackboard demonstration). Only a shared witness can penetrate students' often inadequate recall of events. The TA is in a position to analyze whether the lecture was a good one. Were all points clearly and comprehensively explained? If so, the next recitation class may include a quick review of some of the main issues, followed by an application or extension of the idea. If it was not a good lecture—muddy explanations, confusing organization, too many irrelevant digressions—then the TA may need to spend the next recitation clarifying and developing this material. A TA will soon begin to recognize those points in the lecture that will most likely present problems to the students, but the TA should be prepared in the recitation to answer all questions, not just those he or she thinks will present problems. As one Physics Department TA pointed out, "Be prepared for the worst. If you go to class having prepared 95% of the problems, you can be sure that a student will have a question about the problem you didn't do. And that problem will be a tricky one."

Many TAs are surprised at first to discover that the advanced problems which they find fascinating are not really of interest to an undergraduate in an introductory course; remembering how basic the introductory course is will help you to avoid presenting materials too advanced or esoteric for your students. Finally, attending lectures gives you an opportunity to observe a more experienced teacher, one you may (or may not) choose to use as a model in the future.

No matter how well prepared you are, students will not respond if they perceive the class as a waste of time. Let the students know at the beginning of the semester that the recitation class is not just a rehash of the lecture but an opportunity for the students to grapple with problems they may not thoroughly understand, to broaden their knowledge of concepts, and to give them some practice in applying the things they have learned. Demonstrate that you are sensitive to their concerns and that they will have some control over the materials and topics covered in the class.

Some instructors find that a good way to involve everyone in the class is to ask the students to be ready at the beginning of the class with a question that they would like to have answered. You might start the class by writing all of these questions on the board (in your own shorthand). This takes only a few minutes and will give you an idea of the areas where students are having problems and give them a sense of participating in the shaping of the class. As you write the questions down, group them according to subject matter. Quite frequently, you will find that several students have questions about the same material.

An alternate way of involving students is by outlining on the board the topics that you think need to be covered and having the students rank them, deciding which they find the most urgent. This method has the advantage of giving you more control over the contents of the class while still allowing the students some voice.

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The Laboratory Section
Teaching a laboratory section demands all of the skills necessary for teaching a lecture or discussion session—and more. A lab instructor must first know the materials of the class, which means working closely with the lecturer, attending lectures, and keeping up with the course readings. Lab instructors who also teach recitation classes will have a good idea of how much the students know. If you are not teaching a recitation, however, speak to some TAs who are; they will be able to give you a realistic idea of what the students understand and where their weaknesses lie. It is essential that before you send your students to work on a lab demonstration they understand its objectives, its relationship to matters that have been introduced in the lectures, and the methods they are to use in the lab. Your opening lecture should also point the student to the kinds of analysis and evaluation he or she are expected to make in the lab; the point, after all, is not the lab itself, but the results, correct or incorrect, which lead to various interpretations.

Careful planning is essential in teaching a successful lab section. Preparing a brief lecture to begin the lab, one that helps to focus the students on the problem at hand and covers all of the points that need to be articulated without overwhelming the students, is a difficult task. So that students understand the end goal of the lab and do not feel that they are merely repeating a meaningless exercise, prepare handouts or use the blackboard to provide them with a clear overview of the demonstration. Many instructors like to use a few minutes at the beginning of the section to review the lab from the previous week and establish some connections between that lab and the current one. (It is rarely worthwhile to review a lab at the end of a period; by then, many students have gone off, some are still working, others cleaning up—in other words, to return to the order of the beginning of the period is almost impossible.)

Most lab courses have a supervisor who is responsible for the labs, holds weekly lab preparation meetings, and is available to help with problems. You, however, are ultimately responsible for the success and safety of your own lab. A lab instructor should always go through all of the steps of the demonstration at least once before conducting each lab class. This alerts the instructor to possible problems the students may encounter. If you teach a lab later in the week, you may wish to ask other lab instructors where their students encountered difficulties. (You can be sure that every lab presents its own difficulties.) For labs that necessitate the use of unfamiliar equipment, the TA is required to take time to demonstrate its use, thoroughly and carefully. In some labs, students may be reluctant to handle the required materials because of squeamishness or fear; in others, they are just so confused by the topic that they are unable to interpret the results in any meaningful way. Knowing beforehand where trouble can be expected saves valuable time.

Lab instructors should arrive early for their labs to make sure that all of the equipment is in working order and the needed supplies are available. Although instructors should make their students clean up after the lab, you will want to double-check before your class begins to make sure that all equipment is intact. Do not depend on someone else to do this for you. When something goes wrong, as it invariably will, it is you who must salvage the lab for the students.

Before the students begin work, it is often necessary to organize them into groups. Do not leave this to chance. Take charge. Demonstrations that require the students to move from table to table should also be planned carefully; otherwise, chaos will almost certainly reign as all the students rush to the first table.

While the students are working, your presence should be felt in the room. Do not just sit in the front of the class, waiting for students to come to you with problems. Circulate around the room, making sure that all of the students are making progress. Ask them how they are doing and what they are doing. Take an active role, offering suggestions and assistance when needed.

Lab safety must always be a major concern. All TAs need to be informed about the necessary safety precautions, since the lab instructor is responsible for the safety of the students. Although vigilance is necessary in all labs, extra caution must be exercised in introductory courses.

Anyone who teaches a course faces the problem of students with different levels of interest in, and commitment to, the class. In a lab course, however, inattentive students pose a real danger to themselves and the entire class. Clowning around in the lab can cause serious trouble, and it is up to you to see that order is maintained. Warn students at the beginning of class about any potentially hazardous materials they will be handling. Write warnings on the blackboard and repeat them often throughout the class. Make sure that students wear safety goggles and other equipment as necessary. If you are not sure about the possible dangers of a material, ask the professor in charge of the course. You cannot be too careful. Students who refuse to comply with safety regulations should not be allowed to continue with the lab.

Teaching a lab is not all worry and work; it has its rewards too. Perhaps more so than in any other class, a lab teacher will witness the excitement of active learning. Students, glad to be participating rather than just taking notes, become involved in the work. Also, the more informal atmosphere of the lab, with students often working in pairs or teams, makes it easier for students and instructors to get to know each other.

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The Foreign Language Class
Most foreign language departments in the university have already established ongoing training and support programs for their TAs. As language courses, especially introductory ones, require the mastery of certain lessons in a set sequence, the course outline is often determined beforehand and is common to all instructors teaching that course. Within these limits, however, the TA will certainly find room for individual creativity.

New TAs would do well to recall their first foreign language class and the feelings they had at that time. Try to remember that sinking feeling in your stomach as you were suddenly faced with the prospect of learning a whole new grammar and vocabulary. Perhaps more than in any other course in the university, the students in introductory language classes feel vulnerable and insecure. In a culture where communication has increasingly come to mean verbal communication, a situation where a person is suddenly unable to communicate coherently can be profoundly disturbing. The task of the instructor is to enable the students to get beyond their fears to a state where language acquisition is possible.

One way to make language classes less threatening and reduce some of the tensions inherent in this kind of course is to use audio-visual materials and props. Try to be creative in choosing materials. Besides the standard audio-visual materials (e.g., slides, films, videos, and CDs), TAs should consider including cartoons, posters, food products, advertisements, toys, games, and whatever else they can bring to a classroom to enliven it.

Language classes are usually divided into discrete segments and most teachers agree that, as a rule, these separate parts of the class are a necessity. Although the teacher may certainly vary the class occasionally, the many demands of learning a language are best served by maintaining these divisions: introduction, drill, and conversation.

Language classes, like all others, should begin informally, giving the students a chance to settle in and make the mental transition to the material at hand. The instructor may wish to begin with an anecdote, a joke, an observation—in the target language, of course. This first part of the class can also be used for taking attendance, making or returning assignments, going over homework, or clearing up unfinished business from the previous class. It is pedagogically sound to conduct the entire class in the foreign language, so that students do not view language acquisition as an empty classroom exercise, divorced from the matters of everyday life. Language teachers have a very real advantage in getting to know their students through informal conversation in the language at the beginning of a class.

Drills, which are an essential part of every introductory language class, offer perhaps the greatest challenge to the teacher. Nothing is duller than a rote drill. The TA who can make this part of the class interesting and lively has accomplished much. Be imaginative. If possible, use visuals and props during the drills. Try to personalize the drills, using students' names and relating the drills to their individual interests. This evidence of your interest in them as individuals will make your students feel more comfortable, and you will be rewarded by more intense student involvement in the class. This section of the class is the place to introduce new material, which should always be as closely related to the drills as possible.

Conversation is, of course, at the heart of every language course. Engaging your students in conversation may be difficult at the beginning, but with a little encouragement and playfulness on your part, they will usually respond. Be sure that you converse; questions and answers are not a conversation. Praise your students when you can. If they perform well, let them know it. Breaking the class up into small groups, or even pairs, for conversation sometimes helps overcome inhibitions; if the students make mistakes, they are only failing in front of a small group, not the whole class.

It is often useful to have students talk about their lives outside the classroom or to role-play in order to practice conversation in various everyday situations. In addressing "personal" questions to students or assigning roles for conversation practice, instructors should take care to avoid embarrassing the students. Avoid overly personal questions. Be careful about gender stereotyping and sensitive to matters of sexual orientation. For example, it should not be assumed that all students date members of the opposite sex. Such assumptions might embarrass, offend, or anger students and may serve to distract these students from their efforts to learn the language (see Our Common Purposes, p. 108).

To a large extent, the climate that the TA establishes determines the success of the class. The TA must be sensitive to the inhibitions and embarrassments experienced by someone first learning a language, yet he or she must still be able to facilitate conversation. Give the students time to answer your questions and to respond to your statements. Do not help them before they need it; let them make mistakes and then gently correct them. Never lose your temper or answer sarcastically. Avoid monopolizing the class conversations, showing off your own fluency. Listen carefully to student comments and give a thoughtful response.

Beginning to learn a language must be seen as a series of small steps and minor victories. Language teachers should cheer these victories and make an extra effort to give encouragement, confidence, and support to their students.

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In the Field
In a number of disciplines, work in the laboratory or classroom is enriched by trips into the field to explore the subject matter of the class in a hands-on way. Amy Clifton, a former TA who received her Ph.D. from the Geology Department, offers the following guidelines to consider when planning to take students into the field:

  • Students should be properly prepared before going out into the field...know where they are going and what they will see before they get there. Th